The Hundred Years’ War: A Prolonged Conflict Between England and France (1337–1453)

The roots of the Hundred Years’ War can be traced back to the complex and intertwined political, dynastic, and territorial relationships between England and France. These tensions had been brewing for centuries, exacerbated by overlapping claims of authority, land ownership, and royal lineage. The war itself was not a sudden eruption but rather the culmination of longstanding disputes, reaching a breaking point over a contested claim to the French throne.

The Hundred Years’ War, though spanning more than a century, can be divided into distinct phases, each marked by shifting fortunes, evolving military strategies, and temporary truces. These phases reflect the ebb and flow of English and French power, with periods of intense conflict followed by fragile peace agreements. The war’s dynamic nature ensured that the balance of power shifted dramatically between the two kingdoms, influenced by key figures, innovative tactics, and shifting political alliances.

(Edwardian War (1337–1360))

The first phase of the Hundred Years’ War, known as the Edwardian War, began in 1337 when Edward III of England laid formal claim to the French throne. His assertion was a direct challenge to the legitimacy of Philip VI, the newly crowned French king of the Valois dynasty. Edward’s ambitions were driven not only by his royal lineage but also by his desire to retain control over English territories in France, particularly the Duchy of Aquitaine. The declaration of war in 1337 set in motion a series of military campaigns that would dominate the conflict’s early years.

A defining feature of the Edwardian War was the tactical innovation brought by the English longbowmen. English victories at the Battle of Crécy (1346) and the Battle of Poitiers (1356) showcased the effectiveness of the longbow in large-scale confrontations. In both battles, outnumbered English forces triumphed over larger French armies by exploiting the longbow’s range and power, devastating the heavily armored French cavalry. These victories culminated in the capture of the French king, John II, at Poitiers, a monumental event that forced France into diplomatic negotiations.

(The Treaty of Brétigny (1360))

The capture of King John II of France by the English in 1356 was a turning point that led to the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360. Under the treaty, the English gained significant territorial concessions, notably the expansion of the Duchy of Aquitaine. The treaty represented a high-water mark for English power in France, with England controlling nearly a third of the country. In exchange for these territorial gains, Edward III temporarily renounced his claim to the French throne, although this was more a tactical pause than a true cessation of hostilities.

Despite the diplomatic respite provided by the Treaty of Brétigny, the agreement did little to resolve the underlying tensions that had sparked the war. Both kingdoms remained wary of one another, and the treaty’s concessions were unsustainable in the long term. French efforts to undermine English control over their new territories soon resumed, setting the stage for the next phase of the conflict. The treaty marked the end of the Edwardian War, but it was far from a permanent peace.

(Caroline War (1369–1389))

The Caroline War, the second phase of the Hundred Years’ War, began under the reign of Charles V of France, who ascended the throne in 1364. Determined to reverse the humiliations of the Treaty of Brétigny, Charles V sought to reclaim the territories lost to the English and restore French dominance. The Caroline War represented a stark contrast to the earlier Edwardian phase, as Charles V adopted a more cautious and strategic approach to warfare. Rather than engaging the English in open battles where the longbow had previously proved devastating, Charles employed a war of attrition.

Under the leadership of skilled commanders like Bertrand du Guesclin, French forces focused on guerilla tactics, skirmishes, and sieges rather than large-scale engagements. This strategy allowed France to slowly regain lost territory while avoiding the disastrous defeats of earlier battles. By the late 1380s, Charles V had successfully reclaimed much of the land ceded to England in the Treaty of Brétigny, including key regions like Aquitaine and Normandy. The war’s focus on fortifications and supply lines shifted the nature of medieval conflict, emphasizing endurance over rapid victories.

(The Truce of Leulinghen (1389))

By the end of the Caroline War in 1389, both England and France had become exhausted by years of conflict. England, in particular, was facing internal political turmoil and economic difficulties, weakening its ability to sustain its military campaigns in France. Meanwhile, France was dealing with the mental instability of King Charles VI, which posed significant challenges for the French monarchy. These internal pressures led both sides to agree to the Truce of Leulinghen in 1389, a temporary cessation of hostilities that brought some respite to the war-torn regions.

However, the truce did not signify a definitive end to the conflict. While the truce provided a break in the fighting, the underlying territorial and dynastic tensions remained unresolved. France had regained much of its lost territory, but the English still retained strongholds in key locations, including the port city of Calais. Both kingdoms used the period of truce to recover and rebuild, with the war set to resume in the early 15th century under new leadership.

(Lancastrian War (1415–1453))

The final phase of the Hundred Years’ War, known as the Lancastrian War, began with the ambitions of Henry V of England. After a period of relative peace following the Truce of Leulinghen, Henry V sought to revive English claims to the French throne and capitalize on the internal instability of France. Charles VI of France was suffering from mental illness, and the French monarchy was weakened by internal divisions. Henry’s campaign in France began with one of the most famous and decisive battles of the war: the Battle of Agincourt in 1415.

The English victory at Agincourt, despite being heavily outnumbered, was a masterclass in military strategy. Once again, the English longbowmen played a crucial role, decimating the French nobility and their heavily armored cavalry. The victory not only boosted Henry V’s reputation but also reaffirmed English dominance in the conflict. Following Agincourt, Henry V secured the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, a diplomatic triumph that recognized him as the heir to the French throne and arranged his marriage to Catherine of Valois, the daughter of Charles VI.

(Joan of Arc and the French Revival)

The Lancastrian War also witnessed the rise of Joan of Arc, whose role in the conflict marked a dramatic turning point for the French. In 1429, Joan, a young peasant claiming divine inspiration, rallied French forces and led the successful defense of Orléans, a victory that revitalized French morale. Joan’s influence extended beyond the battlefield, as her presence bolstered the legitimacy of Charles VII, leading to his coronation in Reims. Her efforts helped shift the momentum of the war in favor of France, symbolizing a resurgence in French fortunes.

Though Joan of Arc was captured by the English and executed in 1431, her legacy as a martyr further galvanized French resistance. Under the leadership of Charles VII, the French forces began to reclaim English-held territories, slowly eroding English influence in France. By 1453, following the decisive Battle of Castillon, the English had lost nearly all of their French possessions except for Calais. This marked the effective end of the Hundred Years’ War and the conclusion of England’s continental ambitions.

(Legacy of the Hundred Years’ War)

The Hundred Years’ War left an indelible mark on both England and France. For England, the loss of its French territories led to a period of internal political turmoil, including the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars over control of the English throne. The war also fostered a growing sense of English nationalism, as the monarchy shifted its focus inward. In contrast, France emerged from the conflict with a strengthened sense of national unity and an increasingly centralized royal authority. Charles VII’s victories in the latter stages of the war laid the groundwork for the emergence of a powerful French state.

The Hundred Years’ War also marked a significant evolution in military tactics and technology. The use of the longbow by English forces and the rise of gunpowder and early cannons during the later stages of the conflict signaled the end of traditional feudal warfare. These innovations foreshadowed the development of modern military strategy, where infantry and technology would play a dominant role. The war’s impact on European history cannot be overstated, as it reshaped the political and social landscape of both nations and influenced the course of Western Europe for centuries to come.

(Economic Strain and Political Instability in England)

The Hundred Years’ War placed a massive financial burden on England, draining the kingdom’s resources over its protracted duration. Maintaining armies abroad, particularly in the face of significant losses, required vast sums of money, leading to increased taxation. These taxes, levied on both the nobility and the emerging merchant class, caused widespread discontent. The economic toll was further exacerbated by the devastation of the Black Death, which severely impacted the workforce, reducing agricultural output and disrupting trade. The war’s financial strain weakened the English economy, with long-term repercussions for both the monarchy and the broader population.

In addition to economic challenges, the war’s conclusion contributed to a period of political instability. The loss of English-controlled territories in France by 1453 not only marked the end of England’s continental ambitions but also undermined the authority of the English crown. This, combined with internal dissent and rivalries among noble families, led to the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). The political struggles that followed the Hundred Years’ War were a direct consequence of the kingdom’s weakened position, both financially and in terms of national unity.

(Emergence of English National Identity)

Despite the challenges, the Hundred Years’ War played a crucial role in fostering a distinct English national identity. The conflict against France united various segments of English society under a common cause, creating a sense of “Englishness” separate from continental Europe. This national consciousness was shaped not only by military campaigns but also by a growing cultural distinction between England and France, as English leaders and their subjects began to see themselves as part of a singular nation rather than an extension of feudal domains in France.

Additionally, the war contributed to social changes within England. The reliance on longbowmen—commoners rather than knights—highlighted the importance of the yeoman class in military affairs. This shift diminished the traditional dominance of the knightly class, contributing to the decline of feudalism in England. The increasing influence of commoners and the growing importance of Parliament as a representative institution further reflected these broader social transformations.

(Devastation and Recovery in France)

France suffered immense destruction throughout the Hundred Years’ War, particularly during the Edwardian and Caroline phases. The French countryside was ravaged by English invasions, scorched-earth tactics, and the unchecked violence of mercenary groups known as “free companies.” Key regions like Aquitaine and Normandy were reduced to wastelands, with towns, villages, and agricultural fields left in ruins. The economic impact was severe, as trade routes were disrupted and many regions faced famine and disease. France’s recovery from the war was slow, with the nation struggling to rebuild after over a century of conflict.

However, the eventual French victory, especially under the leadership of Charles VII, marked the beginning of a period of political and social recovery. Charles VII’s reforms—particularly the creation of a standing army and a more efficient tax system—helped restore order and consolidate royal authority. The success of the French reconquest and the decline of English power in France also fostered a sense of national pride and unity, with figures like Joan of Arc symbolizing the resilience of the French spirit.

(Strengthening of the French Monarchy)

The Hundred Years’ War had a lasting impact on the French monarchy, ultimately leading to its centralization and strengthening. Charles VII, who came to power during the latter stages of the war, implemented a series of reforms that increased the authority of the crown. One of the most significant of these was the establishment of a standing army, which allowed the king to maintain a permanent military force independent of feudal levies. This development marked a major shift in European warfare and gave the French monarchy unprecedented control over its military resources.

In addition to military reforms, Charles VII restructured France’s financial system by introducing the taille, a permanent land tax. This provided the crown with a reliable source of revenue, reducing its dependence on the nobility for funding. The centralization of military and financial power enabled the French monarchy to assert greater control over its territories, contributing to the decline of feudalism in France. The consolidation of royal authority following the war set the stage for the absolute monarchy that would dominate France in the centuries to come.

(Evolution of Military Tactics and Technology)

The Hundred Years’ War was a turning point in military history, marking the decline of traditional feudal armies dominated by mounted knights. The English victories at battles like Crécy (1346) and Agincourt (1415) demonstrated the effectiveness of longbowmen, whose arrows could pierce the armor of mounted knights, rendering cavalry charges ineffective. The shift toward infantry-based tactics, particularly the use of longbowmen, highlighted the importance of strategic positioning and discipline over sheer numbers or noble birth. This democratization of warfare, where common soldiers played a critical role, contributed to the broader decline of feudalism.

Another key development during the war was the introduction of gunpowder weapons, including early cannons. Although primitive by modern standards, cannons revolutionized siege warfare, allowing armies to breach fortified castles that had previously been nearly impregnable. The use of cannons in battles like the Siege of Orléans (1429) signaled the beginning of the end for traditional medieval fortifications, heralding a new era of military technology. The spread of gunpowder and artillery would have far-reaching consequences for European warfare in the centuries that followed.

(Cultural and Psychological Impact)

The Hundred Years’ War left a profound cultural and psychological imprint on both England and France. In England, the war became a defining chapter in the nation’s history, immortalized in works like Shakespeare’s Henry V, which celebrated the heroism and military prowess of English leaders. The memory of victories like Agincourt became part of England’s national mythology, shaping the country’s self-image for generations. The war also helped solidify the English language, as the use of French at court began to decline, further distinguishing English national identity from its continental neighbors.

In France, the war had a similarly profound impact. Joan of Arc became a national symbol of resistance and patriotism, her martyrdom inspiring generations of French people. The shared experience of resisting English domination helped forge a strong sense of national unity centered around the monarchy. This psychological transformation was critical in fostering a unified French identity, which would continue to shape the country’s political and cultural landscape long after the war’s conclusion.

(Legacy and Future Conflicts)

While the Hundred Years’ War officially ended in 1453, its legacy continued to influence Anglo-French relations for centuries. The animosity between England and France, exacerbated by over a century of conflict, laid the groundwork for future wars. Rivalries between the two nations persisted throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, culminating in major conflicts such as the Napoleonic Wars. The Hundred Years’ War had established a pattern of competition and hostility that would define much of European history, with both kingdoms continuing to vie for dominance on the continent.

The war also left lasting legacies in terms of governance and military strategy. The rise of centralized monarchies in both England and France, coupled with the military innovations that emerged during the conflict, reshaped the political landscape of Europe. The introduction of standing armies and the decline of feudal levies marked the beginning of the modern state, where national armies and centralized governments became the norm. The Hundred Years’ War was a key turning point in the transition from medieval to early modern Europe, influencing the course of European history for generations.